ET-PERTH 3.1 Abstract: Housing for | Tue, 29 Mar
ET-PERTH 5.7 PAPER: Teaching Scien | Tue, 29 Mar
ET-PERTH 1.5 SUMMARY:On-site Bacter | Fri, 1 Apr
ET-PERTH 1.10 ABS: From The South T | Fri, 1 Apr
ET-PERTH 3.4 PAPER: EARTH TECHNOLOG | Fri, 1 Apr
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Date: Tue, 29 Mar 1994 13:58:15 WST
Subject: ET-PERTH 3.1 Abstract: Housing for Health
Paper 3.1
HOUSING FOR HEALTH - SUMMARY
Paul Pholeros, Stephi Rainow, Paul Torzillo
Health Habitat, Sydney Australia.
Uwankara Palyanyku Kanyintjaku (UPK) 1986/87
In 1987 an environmental health review, Uwankara Palyanyku Kanyintjaku,
described and quantified a physical environment which prevented the
practice of healthy living choices by Aboriginal people on the Anangu
Pitjantjatjara Freehold Lands of South Australia. The report also started
the process of identifying the specific health problems which were likely
to be improved by changes in the living environment of Aboriginal
communities in rural and remote Australia.
The first task of that review was the development of a list of nine healthy
living practices. These were given priority in order of their likely
importance in improving health status:
1. Washing people
2. Washing clothes/bedding
3. Removing waste
4. Improving nutrition
5. Reducing crowding
6. Separating of dogs and children
7. Controlling dust
8. Temperature control
9. Reducing trauma.
For each of these nine areas the UPK report attempted to develop basic
performance standards, or targets, and then outline for Anangu the likely
improvements in health status. For example, to provide the health hardware
necessary for Aboriginal children to shower each day and to wash their
hands and face regularly.
The report identified three major areas for future work:
1. Design, supervision and implementation strategies for housing and health
hardware infrastructure.
2. The development of means by which community management could contribute
to health hardware sustainability in communities.
3. The critical role of maintenance in achieving sustainable health
hardware. The report identified that in most communities, breakdowns in
basic water and waste systems occurred frequently in all housing stock. In
many houses major breakdowns were identified even prior to the first
occupancy. Once breakdowns occurred then the houses actually became a
health hazard rather than a potential health provider. There was a
complete lack of any formalised maintenance system within these
communities.
THE PIPALYATJARA PROJECT - 1992/3
The current project aimed at focusing on the key area of maintenance and
the development of systems which would lead to sustainable health hardware
and consequent benefits in health status. The study took place in
Pipalyatjara, a small community on the western border of the Anangu
Pitjantjatjara Lands. The community is serviced by Nganampa Health Council
and hence we had the benefit of a health service which collected data on
health status in a prospective manner.
We undertook four detailed surveys, at three monthly intervals, of the
status and maintenance requirements of all health hardware in houses in
this community over a one year period. In addition we collected a large
amount of other information about maintenance requirements in the interval
periods. Secondly, we studied population movement within the community.
We reviewed current knowledge about the impact of living conditions such as
those in this community on health patterns, particularly in young children.
The study produced some findings of major significance to housing and
health policy makers.
1. There is substantial evidence that improvements in essential health
hardware in remote communities will lead to specific improvements in
Aboriginal health status, particularly for children.
2. The design and construction processes for both house and yard areas
developed in the UPK report were implemented in Pipalyatjara following that
study. There is clear evidence of a major improvement in the functioning of
health hardware in that community since these changes.
3. The study refutes the view that Aboriginal people will not use health
hardware facilities. We demonstrated that Aboriginal people
enthusiastically use these facilities when they are functioning and
maintained.
4. The project developed a methodology which can be used in remote
communities to assess, monitor and implement an ongoing maintenance program
for health hardware facilities both outside and within houses. This can be
done at a price which is affordable.
5. The major cause of health hardware breakdown and the requirement for
maintenance is not overuse or vandalism but rather poor initial
construction.
6. Population mobility within the community is a major factor in the
planning, design and maintenance provided for these communities.
7. There are a number of areas which require specific research work to
overcome current problems. In particular the major health hardware
maintenance cost occurs with waste removal systems, more specifically the
underground work.
8. Primary health service delivery systems in remote communities need to
develop systems to monitor the major disease processes effected by living
conditions.
9. Major improvements in the morbidity of infectious disease suffered by
Aboriginal children will only occur with major improvements in their living
environment. These improvements are dependent upon the implementation of
strategies outlined in this project. For these strategies to succeed it is
essential that the detailed requirements for their implementation are
acknowledged and adhered to. To improve environmental health for Aboriginal
people, the principles are no longer enough. It is attention to the detail
which is necessary to deliver the final health benefits.
Copyright of the papers is with the authors, and with Murdoch University
for the publication of preprints and proceedings of the conference.
End of Paper.
Conference - Technology Transfer in Remote Communities.
5-6 April 1994 at Murdoch University, Western Australia.
Allen Gianatti
ET-PERTH Facilitator Email: gianatti@cleo.murdoch.edu.au
Phone: Australia 09 2744729 International +61 9 274 4729
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Date: Tue, 29 Mar 1994 13:44:01 WST
Subject: ET-PERTH 5.7 PAPER: Teaching Science and Technology to Ab ... .
Note this is additional paper which did not appear in the program.
Teaching Science and Technology to Aboriginal tertiary students: An
alternative approach
Paper 5.7
Wayne Webster
Course Controller
Pat Dudgeon
Head of Centre
Education Unit, Centre for Aboriginal Studies
Curtin University of Technology. Perth. W.A.
Background
The Centre for Aboriginal Studies is a department of Curtin University,
situated in Bentley, which is wholly managed by Aboriginal people. The
Centre was formally established in 1983, although it has been operating in
a different form since 1974.
The Centre exists primarily to promote the tertiary education of Aboriginal
people, based on the following three principles:
* a recognition of the need for positive action to redress the
educational neglect of Aboriginal people in the tertiary sector;
* a desire to make tertiary education culturally appropriate to
Aboriginal people; and
* the exploration of new ways of learning and working for the benefit
of all people.
The Centre gains its Aboriginal mandate through the involvement and
co-operation of many Aboriginal communities throughout Western Australia.
The Centre's advisory committees are made up of Aboriginal people who
strive to be responsive to the needs of their community. Its driving force
is the sense of common purpose and the over-riding concern for Aboriginal
empowerment and advancement shared by all members.
In response to the observed needs of Aboriginal people the Centre has
established the following courses:
* an Associate Diploma and a Degree in Aboriginal Community
Management and Development;
* an Associate Diploma in Indigenous Health;
* a Certificate in Aboriginal Counselling;
* an Aboriginal University Bridging Course;
* Elective units in Aboriginal studies (open to non-Aboriginal
people); and most recently
* The Associate Diploma in Science and Technology.
The Associate Diploma in Science and Technology
The Associate Diploma in Science and Technology represents an exciting and
dynamic development in education, and has been designed to provide
Aboriginal people who might not have a background in science the
opportunity to study at university level. Its development brings together
the knowledge and expertise of The Centre for Aboriginal Studies, sectors
within the Aboriginal community, the Science Faculty of Curtin University,
and private industry from within Western Australia.
On completion of the course students will have a number of opportunities
from which to choose.
They can:
* continue into a science degree course at Curtin University
receiving credit for some subjects;
* gain employment in the area of science and technology, prospects
for which will be enhanced through the work placement program in the second
year of the diploma course;
* conduct personal research in the area of Aboriginal scientific
knowledge or in the area of alternative technologies for remote
communities.
Aims of the course
The Associate Diploma in Science and Technology has as its main aims:
* enhancement of employment potential for its graduates in the area
of science and technology;
* provide Aboriginal people with the opportunity to gain the skills
and prior knowledge necessary to succeed in a science degree course at a
university;
* enhancement of student understanding of new developments in science
and technology so that they may be used within Aboriginal communities; and
* development and promotion of an understanding of Aboriginal
scientific knowledge.
The teaching/learning strategies employed
To achieve the objectives of the course the following strategies are employed:
* presentation of knowledge in a practical and interesting way;
* development of students' study techniques and communication skills;
* consideration of the student's background in science and technology;
* provision of out-of-class teaching time to complete experiments and
course work;
* provision of student counselling and support services and facilities.
The underlying course philosophy
An important aspect of this course is its blending of Aboriginal and
Western scientific knowledge and ways of knowing in an endeavour to draw
upon the strengths of both cultures. Due to the largely reductionist nature
of western science, Aboriginal scientific knowledge is mistakenly viewed by
some as non-existent, or of little value. This view is discredited when one
looks, for example, at the vast amount of Aboriginal knowledge in the field
of herbal medicine.
Aboriginal scientific knowledge and understanding has been developed by
many generations of people who, in a western context, would be termed
scientists. The knowledge accrued by these people has been passed on in
the oral tradition according to well defined principles and customs. Some
of this knowledge is well known amongst Aboriginal people, while some
remains shrouded in custom. It is the intention of the Centre to use the
available Aboriginal knowledge to enhance and contextualise the learning
which students acquire.
One important aspect of Aboriginal knowledge, and an important distinction
between it and Western science, is its wholistic view of the world. Within
the Aboriginal world-view people are seen as custodians of the land and
responsible for its preservation. Every action which might affect the land
and its people is considered in terms of its potential impact. The effects
of this wholistic world-view on the Associate Diploma in Science and
technology course are:
* the course is presented in such a way that Western knowledge
complements Aboriginal understanding, rather than dominates it;
* wherever possible the traditional custodians of a site are invited
to share their understandings with the students, and their permission is
sought before using the site; and
* students are encouraged to value their Aboriginal understanding of
a specific science or technology while drawing on Western knowledge.
In these considerations the Curtin University Centre for Aboriginal Studies
appears to be breaking new ground in Australian education. Centre staff
have not been able to identify a centre in any other university which takes
a similar approach to science and technology education, and would value
contact with other centres which are interested in developing such an
approach.
The need for the course
It is clear that at all levels of education the participation rate for
Aboriginal students is far lower than for other Australians. Curtin
University is committed to pursuing equity for Aboriginal people in access,
participation and outcomes of higher education.
In an attempt to achieve this objective, the Centre for Aboriginal Studies
at Curtin University has put several strategies into place. Among these is
the Aboriginal Bridging Course which has been conducted since 1976. This
program provides Aboriginal students who have not attained Year 12 in
secondary education the opportunity to matriculate into a university degree
course.
The Aboriginal Bridging Course has been very successful, giving students
the opportunity to move into the fields of Social Science and Business
Studies, and, to a lesser extent, the field of Science and Technology.
Because the number of students moving from the Bridging Course into the
sciences has been minimal, due to factors such as the difficulty of the
subject and the amount and type of resources required, a purpose-designed
course has been structured which directs all of its resources toward
science and technology, thus allowing access into an area that was
previously restricted.
Entrance requirements
Applicants must be at least 17 years of age on entering the course. No
previous knowledge in the area of science is required, but applicants must
have literacy and numeracy skills sufficient to cope with the course.
Mature-age people are actively encouraged to apply.
Prospective students might be asked to sit a three-part entrance test and
attend a personal interview in lieu of formal qualifications. If an
entrance test is required these will be held in November of each year. The
entrance tests will broadly cover the following subject areas:
* Written English
* Comprehension
* Mathematics
On receipt of their application, prospective students will be sent a copy
of a previous test to indicate the degree of difficulty. The interviews
will be conducted by a selection panel which will assess an applicant's
suitability in terms of motivation and ability to work effectively in group
activities.
Course development process
The course has been developed by the Centre for Aboriginal Studies in
consultation with sectors of the Aboriginal Community, the Science Faculty
at Curtin University and sectors within private industry. Development of
the course is seen as an ongoing process which began in December 1992, and
saw the accreditation phase completed in November 1993.
Due to the pioneering nature of this Science and Technology course, the
Centre for Aboriginal Studies has taken a responsive approach to its
development, evaluating needs and using experience acquired from previous
courses. An attempt has been made to identify existing science courses
that include Aboriginal knowledge as part of their curriculum, with little
success. What has become evident is a growing literature, some Australian,
which supports the type of initiative undertaken by the Curtin University,
Centre for Aboriginal Studies. Parish (1991) has also found that
literature specific to Aboriginal world-views in education is scarce. He
makes a plea to practitioners that they should "gain appropriate
understandings", and proceeds to define world-view and its effect in the
context of Aboriginal education.
Kepert (1991) has demonstrated that the comprehension of abstract
mathematical concepts can be enhanced for Aboriginal students by using
abstract Aboriginal frames of reference as objects of comparison.
Commenting on the situation vis-a-vis the adoption of science and
technology by African nations Swift (1992, p.9) notes that "the development
of scientific (and by implication technological) understanding in an
individual is strongly dependent on the existing knowledge and world-view
of that individual". He goes on to say that, "Indigenous knowledge is not
just a collection of isolated facts and skills. It is rather the end result
of the way in which these have been put together since birth. Even the
assembly process appears to be context-dependent".
Thies (1987, p.176), responding to the aspirations of Aboriginal parents in
the East Kimberley region, says;
'All parents aspire to their children having a pride and confidence in
their own culture and traditional heritage and, without losing this, their
gaining the knowledge and skills of the mainstream society that will bring
the Aboriginal community to an equal social and economic footing with the
non-Aboriginal community.'
In the opinion of the staff of the Centre, the Associate Diploma in Science
and Technology is in harmony with the literature quoted above, and is
moving quickly to a position from which it will be able to deliver a
culturally relevant course to better equip Aboriginal students for work or
further study.
Course content and structure
The Associate Diploma in Science and Technology is a two year full-time
study programme which follows the University's academic timetable over four
semesters. Each subject unit at Curtin University is allocated a number of
credit points which reflects its degree of difficulty. To complete the
Associate Diploma in Science and Technology students must gain at least 400
credit points over the two years. This represents about five subjects per
semester involving about seventeen total hours class time per week.
Semester 1 Communication Science & Technology 101
Environmental Biology 101
Measurement Science 101
Statistics 101
Geological Changes 101
Aboriginal Studies 111
Semester 2 Environmental Chemistry 102
Biological Life Processes 102
Energy and Technology 102
Mathematical Functions 102
Geological Systems 102
Semester 3 Working Across Cultures 201
Environmental Chemistry 201
Calculus 201
In consultation with the course co-ordinator, students may choose
any number of Curtin University elective units to a total of 40 credits in
the areas of geology, physics, biology, computing etc.
Semester 4 Science & Technology Project 202
Field Experience 202
In consultation with the course co-ordinator, students may choose
any number of Curtin University elective units to a total of 60 credits in
the areas of geology, physics, biology, computing.
Conclusion
The course has now been in operation for a period of four months.
Indications are that it is meeting the aims of the Centre, and the
aspirations of the students, who have responded well to the teaching
strategies which have been used.
It is the intention of the Centre to further develop the Associate Diploma
course in order to provide a relevant education in Science and Technology
to a broader range of Aboriginal students.
References
Kepert, B. (1991). Mathematics for aboriginal students who have a different
world view. The Aboriginal Child at School, 19 (2), 32-41.
Parish, D. (1991). Aboriginal world view in the educational context. The
Aboriginal Child at School, 19 (4), 14-20.
Swift, D. (1992). Indigenous knowledge in the service of science and
technology in developing countries. Studies in Science Education, 20,
1-28.
Thies, K. (1987). Aboriginal viewpoints on education: A survey in the East
Kimberley region. Research Series Number 5, National Centre for Research
on Rural Education, University of Western Australia.
Copyright of the papers is with the authors, and with Murdoch University
for the publication of preprints and proceedings of the conference.
End of Paper
Font Courier 10
Conference - Technology Transfer in Remote Communities.
5-6 April 1994 at Murdoch University, Western Australia.
Allen Gianatti
ET-PERTH Facilitator Email: gianatti@cleo.murdoch.edu.au
Phone: Australia 09 2744729 International +61 9 274 4729
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Date: Fri, 1 Apr 1994 23:40:07 +0800
Subject: ET-PERTH 1.5 SUMMARY:On-site Bacteriological Test for Potable Water
On-site Bacteriological Test for Potable Water
Paper 1.5
Contains Summary, Introduction and Conclusion.
Tanya Gawthorne*, Kuruvilla Mathew*, Robyn Gibbs and Goen Ho.
*Institute of Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, 6150.
Telephone: (09) 360 6124. Facsimile: (09) 310 4997.
Summary
Bacteriological water quality from remote communities in Western Australia
is difficult to test because of the distance to health laboratories, the
need for aseptic sampling conditions, the lack of skilled workers and the
high temperatures involved when transporting samples. Kits have been
developed that can test for bacteria at the point of sampling. These have
the advantage that they are cheaper, less complicated to operate, easier to
interpret and take less time to complete than the standard laboratory
procedures. The Colilert and Colisure kits were tested, with the aim to
produce a video and explanatory brochure that can be used to train people
in remote communities. It was concluded that both kits are adequate for the
purpose of a portable testing kit, and that the Presence/Absence format was
more suitable for use by the Environmental Health Worker.
INTRODUCTION
Routine testing of water quality is a public health requirement, and the
National Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality in Australia recommend
frequent sampling for microbial constituents, at least once a month, and
preferably once a fortnight (NHMRC, 1987). Despite the acceptance of these
guidelines, the majority of remote Aboriginal communities in Western
Australia do not at present have any form of water testing. Of the 250
(approximately) communities in Western Australia, only 48 of them are
funded to receive water testing and maintenance. Those communities
receiving funding are tested every four to eight weeks, but the site for
testing is immediately after the storage tank, which means that the sampled
water may not be of the same quality as the drinking water. Those
communities not receiving funding cannot get their water tested due to the
high transportation costs, and the lack of access to a laboratory.
To improve this situation, research has focussed on the development and
adaptation of portable water testing kits for use in remote Aboriginal
communities. These would have the advantage of being faster, cheaper and
able to be used by trained Aboriginal personnel. Turner and Mathew (1991)
compared the Colilert, DelAgua, Millipore One Use Unit and Millipore
Dipslides for their applicability for use in remote Aboriginal communities.
They recommended the Colilert Presence/Absence as it is a one-step test
that is easy to use, easy to interpret and was found to be as sensitive and
reliable as the methods used by the State Health Laboratories of Western
Australia. National evaluations by Edberg et al. (1988, 1989) and further
evaluations by Clark and El-Shaarawi (1993), McFeters et al. (1993) and
Covert et al. (1992) have supported the conclusion that the Colilert is
equal in performance to the standard methods employed for the
differentiation of total coliforms from water.
The choice of Colilert over the other portable test kits was primarily due
to its ease in operation and interpretation. The Colilert is an MPN method
designed for the differentiation and enumeration of total coliforms and E.
coli from water in 24 hours. It consists of a dry blended reagent
dispensed in a sterile five-tube MPN, six-tube MPN, ten-tube MPN or a
100ml P/A (Colilert promotional brochure). The water sample is added to the
tubes, which are then incubated for 24 hours at 370C. Tubes receiving one
or more of the total coliform organisms will show a colour change from
clear to yellow, and the most probable number of organisms in the sample
can then be estimated. Tubes receiving E. coli can be identified by
fluorescence under a long-wave ultraviolet (U.V.). lamp.
It was not until a late stage in the study that an additional portable test
became available; the Colisure. The Colisure is an MPN test that is very
similar to the Colilert, dispensed in either a five tube MPN (20ml in each
tube) or a 100ml P/A. After incubation for 24 hours at 370C, a colour
change from yellow to red indicates the presence of one or more coliform
organisms, and the presence of E. coli is identified by fluorescence under
a long-wave U.V. lamp.
Unlike the Colilert, the Colisure P/A test has the reagent pre-dispensed in
a sterile 100ml bottle. As the Colilert P/A test was recommended over the
MPN for use in remote Aboriginal communities due to the reduced avenues
for contamination, this aspect of the Colisure P/A was seen as an advantage
over the Colilert P/A. The purpose of this study, then, was to evaluate the
Colisure P/A to determine its potential as a field testing kit. The
reliability and sensitivity of the Colisure P/A for the differentiation of
total coliforms and E. coli from water was compared to that of the Colilert
and to the methods employed by the State Health Laboratories of Western
Australia (SHL).
In addition to this, the performance of the Colisure and Colilert P/A tests
was compared to the results obtained by the methods used by the SHL after
the sample water had been delayed for 21 hours. This is to simulate the
field situation, where the water may be analysed immediately by the
Colilert or Colisure, but transported to the SHL, thus involving a "delay"
from the time of sampling to the processing time.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The Colisure P/A is as reliable and sensitive for the differentiation of
total coliforms and E. coli from water as the methods used by the State
Health Laboratories of Western Australia.
2. The Colisure P/A is as reliable and sensitive for the differentiation of
total coliforms and E. coli from water as the Colilert P/A.
3. The Colilert P/A and the Colisure P/A are appropriate portable water
testing kits for use in remote Aboriginal communities, as they meet the
following criteria:
* they are as reliable and sensitive as the methods used by the State
Health Laboratory of Western Australia.
* they are easy to operate, and provide the lowest risk of external
contamination.
* the results from the Colilert and Colisure are easy to interpret.
* only one temperature is needed to differentiate both total coliforms and
E. coli, and thus only one incubator is necessary.
Copyright of the paper is with the authors(s) and with Murdoch University
for the posting and publication for the Conference on Technology Transfer
in Remote Communities.
Allen Gianatti
Facilitator ET-PERTH
gianatti@cleo.murdoch.edu.au
Tel +61 +9 +2744729
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Date: Fri, 1 Apr 1994 23:35:07 +0800
Subject: ET-PERTH 1.10 ABS: From The South To The North ... .
Abstract 1.10 (not in program)
FROM THE SOUTH TO THE NORTH TO THE SOUTH AGAIN: COMMUNITY-BASED WATER
QUALITY MONITORING FOR REMOTE COMMUNITIES.
Gilles Forget, International Development Research Centre
In the early eighties, institutions in the South began a series of studies
to simplify existing methods of water-quality assessment with financial
support from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). The
purpose of this applied research was to provide simple, effective and
affordable methods of microbiological water-quality monitoring for remote
communities. The methods under study were the Presence and Absence (P/A),
the H2S paper strip, the A-1 Broth and the Coliphage tests. Institutions
from Egypt, Morocco, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Brazil, Peru and Chile
were brought together into a coordinated network of projects. An
evaluation of the research results from all countries concluded that both
the improved Coliphage and H2S paper strip tests were suitable for use in
developing countries. Chile, Brazil and Malaysia undertook further
research to test the field-performance, ruggedness, sensitivity,
reliability and packaging of the tests.
The IDRC was hoping to adapt these methods for use by non technical
individuals. The aim was to empower communities to achieve
self-sufficiency in drinking-water quality monitoring. Such an opportunity
arose when the National Water Research Institute (NWRI - Canadian
department of the Environment) approached IDRC for support to transfer the
A-1 broth and the P/A tests from the original projects to the remote Cree
Nation community of Split Lake in Manitoba (Northern Canada). A small
laboratory was established in Split Lake, local expertise was developed and
the performance of the tests was assessed under northern environmental
conditions. After this successful first phase, a second phase was funded
allowing the introduction of the H2S paper strip and Coliphage tests. The
Band Council now maintains and administers the small laboratory and employs
the two local project-trained technicians for the routine monitoring of
Split Lake's drinking and recreational waters.
Using the knowledge and experience which they had acquired through the two
earlier phases, the Cree Nation technicians have undertaken to transfer
this technology to 2 Mapuche Nation communities in Chile. The process was
initiated 6 months ago with the transfer of the H2S and P/A methods through
a 1 month working-visit to the area by the 2 Cree technicians. The two
Chilean communities have differing economic statuses, and thus the project
will increase current knowledge of criteria necessary for successful
technology transfers in developing country communities. This work is
carried out in collaboration with IDRC, the NWRI, the University of Chile
(one of the original research institutions) and a local NGO (TRAFKIN).
The importance of this phase of the work lies in the need for information
on the process as well as the feasibility and desirability of the
COMMUNITY-TO-COMMUNITY transfer of technologies for sustainable and
equitable development.
CONTRIBUTED BY:
Gilles Forget
Health, Society and the Environment Program
International Development research Centre
P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, CANADA K1G 3H9
internet GFORGET@IDCR.CA
phone: (613) 236 6163 x2545 (off.) (819) 243-4802 (H)
fax: (613) 567-7748
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS AND THEIR INSTITUTIONS:
-------------------------------------------------------------
Dra. Gabriela CASTILLO, Departamiento de Ingeneria Civil, Fac.
Matematica y Fisica, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, CHILE.
Dra. Therezinha MARTINS, Dep. Microbiol., Instituto de Ciencias
Biomedicas, Univ. de Sao Paulo, BRAZIL
Dra. Maria Aline RATTO, Centro Latinoamericano de Ensenanya e
Investigacion de Bacteriologia Alimentaria, Univ. Nacional
Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, PERU
Dr. H. ABOUZAID, Dep. de qualite de l'eau,
Office national de l'eau potable, Rabat, MAROC
Dr. M.M. EL-ABAGY, Water and Sewage Microbiology,
National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, EGYPT
Dr. WANG Chee Woon, Dept. Microbiology, University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
Mr. Peter HO, Department of the Environment, Ministry of
Sciences, Technology and the Environment, Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA
Dr. Tiow-Suani Sim, National University of Singapore, REPUBLIC OF
SINGAPORE
Dr.KOMOL Sivaborvorn, Mahidol University, Bangkok,THAILAND
Dr. Bernard DUTKA, Rivers Research Branch, National Water
Research Institute, Environment Canada, Burlington, CANADA
Mr. Peter SEIDLE, International Joint Commission for the Great Lakes
- USA and Canada, Windsor, CANADA
Chief Norman FLETT, Split Lake Cree Band Council, Split Lake,
Manitoba, CANADA
Mr. Victor SPENCE, Community Health Representative,
Split Lake Cree Band, Split Lake, Manitoba, CANADA
Mr. Santiago ARAYA, TRAFKIN, Temuco, CHILE
Copyright of the paper is with the authors(s) and with Murdoch University
for the posting and publication for the Conference on Technology Transfer
in Remote Communities.
Allen Gianatti
Facilitator ET-PERTH
gianatti@cleo.murdoch.edu.au
Tel +61 +9 +2744729
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Date: Fri, 1 Apr 1994 23:12:10 +0800
Subject: ET-PERTH 3.4 PAPER: EARTH TECHNOLOGIES AS APPROPRIATE ... .
EARTH TECHNOLOGIES AS APPROPRIATE TOOLS FOR SELF-RELIANCE
PAPER 3.4
RAMON DAVIS B.ARCH (Hons)
ABORIGINAL CO-ORDINATING COUNCIL
CAIRNS, QUEENSLAND
POLICY & RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT
Both the use of Earth as a building material, and the practice of
Self-Reliant approaches for the achievement of shelter needs have become
casualties as we move away from traditional systems towards industrially
based societies. People themselves have become specialised and capital
intensive in their occupations. The creation of buildings has followed
suit with specialised trades utilising highly processed materials, the
production of which often involves environmental depletion or damage or
sometimes toxic processes. Some of these materials are in themselves toxic.
>From a social point of view, ordinary people have been largely excluded
from the production of their own homes. But it is evident that when people
are involved in the design or building of their own homes or control the
entire process, that important personal, social and economic rewards are
generated. This may be especially significant for either those who wish
for greater personal fulfilment in the housing process, such as owner
builders in general, or for those seeking a more culturally appropriate
answer to their housing needs. In general, this second group usually
includes those with relatively fewer economic options for acquiring homes,
either here or in the Third World countries where Western technologies have
also become all pervasive. It is clear too that neither government mass
produced housing schemes nor reliance on the marketplace can solve the
extraordinary housing need with which the world is confronted. Amidst this
gloom however, there is a strategy which may be able to provide at least
one solution for widespread application. This involves the combination of
the old idea of Self-Reliance, with the time honoured tradition of using
Earth as a material of construction.
The main positive factor in all of this, is that people can and will help
themselves to achieve their shelter needs if they are 'enabled' to do so.
At least from the constructional point of view, the earth technologies
offer perhaps the most democratic opportunity available for utilising site
material within a self-build setting. This is because soils suitable for at
least one of the large range of earth constructional methods is usually
available. It is said that the most suitable lateritic soils cover 75% of
the earth's surface. Other soil types may be mixed or stabilised with
products such as cement or lime to extend this potential. Just as
significant in the enabling sense however, is the general simplicity of the
processes involved in making products from earth, once these have been
devised and employed within a locality to suit the soil type and the
labour, time and capital availability. There is a large range of product
types and constructional methods which vary across a spectrum from entirely
manual to predominantly mechanised. The manual end of the spectrum offers
the potential for involving unskilled people in general as well as those
usually excluded from the building process such as women, the young or the
aged. Virtually anyone can help make mud bricks within a group. It is this
facilitation for group involvement which extends the 'appropriateness' of
the material from simply environmental or economic viewpoints to social
and cultural dimensions. Because these technologies may be truly owned in
an individual, family or a local sense, they provide the potential for
users to achieve personal identification with the buildings. This is
especially important when considering the vandalism and decay of buildings
and living environments because they do not mirror the lifestyles, values
or needs of their inhabitants. This may be because they have been supplied
by either insensitive governments or a marketplace driven by majority
demand.
The key to real success in achieving a 'good fit' between a building and
the user must surely be with design processes that include the user.
However, the use of appropriate materials and processes can greatly assist
to allow for a more complete user involvement and so further these
possibilities.
The design process necessary when utilising earth is clearly a different
matter than when selecting other normal building products. The latter are
produced under standard conditions using precise quality control formulas.
There is readily available technical data for their structural design.
With earth however, it is first necessary to design a product from the
available soil and other resources. This is then evaluated using standard
tests to determine load capacity and erosion rates. The building may then
be designed as either load bearing or infill panel structure. Adequate
design arrangements are then made to protect it from the elements as
necessary. At this point in time however, there is a lack of public
knowledge regarding earth construction and it has not generally been
included in curricula for either building inspectors or design
professionals. Because of this, it is still possible for ignorance and
prejudice to condemn earth as fragile or primitive, yet evidence from all
over the world demonstrates that this is false and that earth is in fact
a versatile building material with many qualities to commend its present
use. Current practice combines the merits of traditional principles with
modern expertise and allows ordinary people to achieve quality results.
There is currently a wealth of technical literature available to cover all
aspects of earth construction from material selection to product
development and testing as well as structural information and detailing.
The CSIRO has been researching in this area since the Second World War and
Australia has one of the most advanced Government Technical Bulletins
covering this subject for use by Designers, Builders and Regulatory
Authorities. Successive editions of this publication known as 'Bulletin 5'
(NBTC), now in its fourth revision, have gradually seen it change from a
document primarily aiming to demonstrate that earth-wall is a viable method
of construction, to a document which can be used as a design, construction
and quality control manual for Australian conditions. Work is currently
underway in Australia to produce a complete code for the use of earth.
Suffice to say, owner builders willing to so inform themselves can both
experiment with soil and methods to produce technically acceptable
products. They can also overcome any design problems or bureaucratic
hurdles, such as building approval,with relative ease.
For remote communities working within bureaucratic settings, this ability
would of course be much more difficult to achieve. For projects of this
nature to become reality there would need to be some 'enabling' factors to
assist the process. Included here would be the requirement for good
technical backup at each stage of product development, design and
construction. The opportunity for cost savings and other technical and
social benefits could really begin to emerge as individuals and the
community take control of the building process.
In an objective analysis of general building materials and methods, an
investigation regarding earth reveals an impressive array of properties by
comparison. If these comparisons are made with respect to either
environmentally friendly considerations or user friendly criteria, the
results are equally impressive.
>From an environmental point of view, earth represents one of those rare
materials whose production and use are ecologically sustainable. This is
with respect to matters such as energy use, landscape degradation, resource
depletion and all forms of pollution and occupational health outcomes. It
is a renewable and abundant resource whose production has a low impact on
the environment. Suitable earth is usually obtained from the actual
building excavations or from nearby at little or no expense. The amount of
earth required for the walls of a small single storey house (of say 110m2)
is about 70 cubic metres or equal to the soil excavated over the house area
by about 600mm deep.
>From an energy-use viewpoint, earth products are energy efficient. The use
of building materials consumes energy during the four phases of their
deployment - extraction, processing, transportation and construction. This
"embodied energy" is low for earth products because they are made locally
and require little processing. A comparison with other materials may be
seen in the following table.
MATERIAL ENERGY COST (KWh/tonne)
Finished Aluminium 91000
Plastic 45000
Finished Steel 13200
Finished Copper 12800
Cement 2200
Concrete 500
Burnt Brick 500
Plaster 900
Plaster Board 18
Milled Timber 70
Glass 8100
Mech Produced Earth Block 5 - 10
Manually Produced Earth Block << 0.1
TABLE Material Embodied Energy Comparisons.
"More energy is used for building, servicing and maintaining homes and
local facilities than for everything else together" (John Turner, 1987).
Earth walls are especially appropriate in cold or arid climates and their
thickness and density provide excellent insulation against heat and cold.
This 'thermal comfort' aspect of earth houses is readily noticeable when
you enter. They are cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter. The
material lends itself well for application in solar design projects.
Earth walls are also durable and require low maintenance. With a careful
selection of soil types and sound design and construction practice, this
type of building is capable of lasting for centuries. (This of course
excludes acts of human destruction). Any maintenance that may be necessary
requires minimum skill in its application. In addition, earth walls are
non-combustible and also seem to be termite resistant. The sound absorption
capacity of earth walls is very good and houses of earth are
characteristically quiet. These walls also 'breathe' with the outdoor
conditions providing a comfortable indoor climate. They do not absorb
moisture however and condensation is not associated with them.
>From a practical point of view, earth is also very user-friendly. Some of
these aspects have been mentioned already and they include minimum skill
and equipment requirements, along with the social benefits of personal
enrichment and community development opportunities. There is also a range
of aesthetic and creative benefits to be gained since the unique colour,
texture and sculptural qualities of earth make it well suited to a crafted
approach. It offers good potential for cultural expression as is shown by
beautiful earth houses from many cultures.
Architecturally, earth is most versatile. The various techniques allow for
great flexibility in building design and in scales ranging from domestic to
community structures. It may be used over a large range of building
elements including walls, floors, roofs, fireplaces, furniture and external
elements such as paving or garden walls. Earth technology includes a range
of structures and methods to suit different design, aesthetic, economic and
other resource circumstances. Obviously, major resource considerations
concern the availability of local labour and project time constraints.
A detailed treatment of earth techniques is not possible within the scope
of this paper. In any case, such treatments are available in the technical
literature. A verbal presentation by the author will introduce some of
these briefly with the assistance of slides. A technical slide presentation
has also been offered by the author.
Earth buildings have become very popular in Australia and the past decade
has been witness to the construction of more earth buildings than ever
before. Tens of thousands of earth homes currently exist in Australia and
the numbers are claimed to be increasing by approximately 30% each year as
the practice flourishes at individual, commercial and government levels.
Owner-builders especially, have best utilised the material to their
advantage.
In the 'Sweat Equity' Self-Build scheme operated by the Victorian Ministry
of Housing, over some 10 years about 80% of the owner builders used earth.
That scheme produced some notable social and economic results and is well
worth examining.
So too, many community groups around Australia have utilised earth to their
advantage. These include: a South Australian housing cooperative (where
tenants worked on their own earth houses); residents of a government
housing estate in Victoria (who built a neighbourhood centre); parents &
friends of a college in Victoria (who built an arts & crafts wing); a group
of Franciscan nuns in NSW (who built a monastery complex of 17 buildings
and with enthusiastic public support); a local historic society in
Queensland (who built an historic museum); local community groups in many
places that have built community halls.
There also exist some interesting Government Projects such as walkup flats
in Darwin and an earth rendered, concrete free, mud brick house in perfect
condition built 40 years ago by the Queensland Housing Commission.
Suffice to say that earth has been the most essential of building materials
since the dawn of time. Today over one third of the world's population live
in earth houses. Raw, unbaked earth is a simple and obvious material
selection when either its inherent architectural and constructional
qualities are consciously sought, or when other environmental, economic or
social factors would suggest its use.
Further Work by the Author on this Subject
'Self-Reliant and Sustainable Settlement Utilising Earth'
An architectural thesis which explores housing strategies which have
combined Self-Reliant approaches with the use of Earth as a material of
construction.
Queensland University, 1990 (unpublished).
Copyright of this paper is with the author(s) and with Murdoch University
for the posting and publishing of the paper.
CONFERENCE ON TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER IN REMOTE COMMUNITIES MURDOCH UNIVERSITY, WA
APRIL 1994
Allen Gianatti
Facilitator ET-PERTH
gianatti@cleo.murdoch.edu.au
Tel +61 +9 +2744729